ASTM E2086 - 00

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Designation: E 2086 – 00 An American National Standard
Standard Guide for
Internet and Intranet Healthcare Security
1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E 2086; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
1. Scope
1.1 This guide covers mechanisms that can be used to
protect healthcare information which is being transmitted over
networks using the Internet Protocol Suite (IPS). This includes
the actual Internet itself, as well as corporate intranets con-
structed from off–the–shelf components implementing these
protocols. An organization’s security policy will determine
when these mechanisms are used, based on risk analysis.
1.2 The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is defining
security standards for use with the IPS. This guide covers the
relevant standards and recommends, where needed, particular
options (such as cryptographic transformations) to be used with
the standards. Most standards referenced here are proposed
standards issued as Requests for Comments (RFCs). Some are
in the draft stage, but are stable enough (and widely enough
implemented) to be recommended for use at this time.
2. Referenced Documents
2.1 IETF Standards:
2
RFC 1510 Kerberos Authentication Service
RFC 1777 Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (v2)
RFC 2251 Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (v3)
RFCs 1901–1910 Simple Network Management Protocol
RFC 1945 Hypertext Transfer Protocol
RFC 1964 Kerberos v5 GSS-API Mechanism
RFC 2246 The TLS Protocol Version 1.0
RFC 2401 Security Architecture for the Internet Protocol
RFC 2402 IP Authentication Header
RFC 2403 The Use of HMAC-MD5–96 within ESP and AH
RFC 2404 The Use of HMAC-SHA-196 within ESP and
AH
RFC 2406 IP Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP)
RFC 2407 The Internet IP Security Domain of Interpreta-
tion for ISAKMP
RFC 2408 Internet Security Association and Key Manage-
ment Protocol (ISAKMP)
RFC 2409 The Internet Key Exchange (IKE)
RFC 2411 IP Security Document Roadmap
RFC 2440 OpenPGP Message Format
RFC 2451 The ESP CBC-Mode Cipher Algorithms
RFC 2560 Internet X.509 Public Key Infrastructure Online
Certificate Status Protocol
RFC 2630 Cryptographic Message Syntax
RFC 2631 Diffie-Hellman Key Agreement Method
RFC 2632 S/MIME Version 3 Certificate Handling
RFC 2633 S/MIME Version 3 Message Specification
RFC 2634 Enhanced Security Services for S/MIME
2.2 Other Standards:
FIPS PUB 180–1 Secure Hash Algorithm
3. Terminology
3.1 Definitions:
3.1.1 algorithm—a clearly specified mathematical process
for computation; a set of rules which, if followed, will give a
prescribed result.
3.1.2 asymmetric cryptography—cryptographic algorithm
that uses two related keys, a public key and a private key; the
two algorithm keys have the property that, given the public
key, it is computationally infeasible to derive the private key.
3.1.3 authentication—the corroboration that the source of
data received is as claimed.
3.1.4 authorization—the granting of rights.
3.1.5 cipher text—data in its enciphered form.
3.1.6 clear text—data in its original, unencrypted form.
3.1.7 confidentiality—the property that information is not
made available to or disclosed to unauthorized individuals,
entities, and processes.
3.1.8 cryptographic checkvalue—a value computed using a
shared secret key and a data unit, which can be used to provide
data integrity and authentication services.
3.1.9 cryptography—the discipline which embodies prin-
ciples, means, and methods for the transformation of data in
order to hide its information content, prevent its undetected
modification, prevent its unauthorized use or a combination
thereof.
3.1.10 datagram—a data unit that is delivered indepen-
dently of other data units transmitted over a network.
3.1.11 data integrity—a property whereby data has not been
altered or destroyed.
1
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E31 on Healthcare
Informatics, and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E31.20 on Data and
System Security for Health Information.
Current edition approved April 10, 2000. Published June 2000.
2
Available on line at ftp://ds.internic.net.
1
Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.
3.1.12 decryption—a process of transforming ciphertext
into plaintext.
3.1.13 digital signature—a cryptographic transformation of
data which, when associated with a data unit, provides the
services of origin authentication, data integrity, and signer
non–repudiation.
3.1.14 encryption—a process of transforming plain text
(readable) into cipher text (unreadable) for the purpose of
security or privacy.
3.1.15 encryption key—a binary number used to transform
plain text into ciphertext.
3.1.16 gateway—a computer system or other device that
acts as a translator between two systems that do not use the
same communications protocols, data formatting, structures,
languages, or architecture, or a combination thereof.
3.1.17 intranet—an internal corporate network which uses
the Internet protocol suite (TCP, IP, etc.)
3.1.18 non–repudiation—this service provides proof of the
integrity and origin of data, both in an unforgeable relationship,
which can be verified by any party.
3.1.19 plain text—data in its original, unencrypted form.
3.1.20 repudiation—the denial by a user of having partici-
pated in part or all of a communication. (See non–repudiation,
which has the opposite meaning.)
3.1.21 replay—the process of sending a previously sent
message as a method of perpetrating a fraud.
3.1.22 security association—the relationship between two
entities which allows the protection of information communi-
cated between the entities.
3.1.22.1 Discussion—This relationship includes a shared
symmetric key, and security attributes describing the relation-
ship. The security association is used to negotiate the charac-
teristics of these protection mechanisms, but does not include
the protection mechanisms themselves.
3.1.23 session—logical relationship between two network
endpoints that supports a user or network application.
3.1.24 subnetwork—a network segment, usually with its
own address.
3.1.25 symmetric encryption—encryption using a single key
to encrypt and decrypt which both the sender and receiver hold
privately.
3.1.26 virtual private network—a network which uses the
Internet as a carrier, but is operated as a dedicated point-to-
point network.
3.1.26.1 Discussion—Encryption is used to segregate and
protect the VPN’s data when it is conveyed over the Internet.
3.2 Acronyms:Acronyms:
3.2.1 AH—Authentication Header
3.2.2 API—Application Programming Interface
3.2.3 ASTM—American Society for Testing and Materials
3.2.4 ATM—Asynchronous Transfer Mode
3.2.5 DEC—Digital Equipment Corporation
3.2.6 DES—Data Encryption Standard
3.2.7 DSA—Digital Signature Algorithm
3.2.8 EDI—Electronic Data Interchange
3.2.9 ESP—Encapsulating Security Payload
3.2.10 FTP—File Transfer Protocol
3.2.11 GSS—Generic Security Services
3.2.12 HMAC—Hashed Message Authentication Code
3.2.13 HTTP—HyperText Transfer Protocol
3.2.14 IDUP—Independent Data Unit Protection
3.2.15 IETF—Internet Engineering Task Force
3.2.16 IP—Internet Protocol
3.2.17 IPS—Internet Protocol Suite
3.2.18 IPSEC—Internet Protocol Security
3.2.19 ISAKMP—Internet Security Association and Key
Management Protocol
3.2.20 LAN—Local Area Network
3.2.21 MD—Message Digest
3.2.22 MIME—Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension
3.2.23 PCT—Private Communications Technology
3.2.24 PIN—Personal Identification Number
3.2.25 PKCS—Public–Key Cryptography Standards
3.2.26 RFC—Requests for Comment
3.2.27 RSA—Rivest, Shamir, and Adelman
3.2.28 SHA-1—Secure Hash Algorithm
3.2.29 S–HTTP—Secure HyperText Transfer Protocol
3.2.30 S/MIME—Secure/Multipurpose Internet Mail Exten-
sions
3.2.31 SMTP—Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
3.2.32 SSL—Secure Socket Layer
3.2.33 TCP—Transmission Control Protocol
3.2.34 TLSP—Transport Layer Security Protocol
3.2.35 UDP—User Datagram Protocol
3.2.36 VPN—Virtual Private Network
3.2.37 WAN—Wide Area Network
3.2.38 WWW—World Wide Web
4. Significance and Use
4.1 This guide recommends security mechanisms for pro-
tection of healthcare information transmitted using the IPS.
The IPS consists of multiple protocol layers.
4.2 The lowest layer which can provide end–to–end security
is the Internet Protocol (IP). IP may run over a variety of
subnetwork technologies, such as Ethernet, X.25, ATM, and
even asynchronous dial–up lines. While it is possible to
provide security services directly over those technologies, such
approaches only protect a single subnetwork and are not
discussed further.
4.3 A variety of protocols may be run on top of IP. These
include the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which pro-
vides reliable, sequenced data delivery (sessions), and the User
Datagram Protocol (UDP), which provides unsequenced data
delivery (datagrams). Other protocols at this layer include
various routing and configuration protocols used by the net-
work itself.
4.4 Application protocols typically make use of either TCP
or UDP. A variety of standard application protocols have been
defined for such applications as file transfer (FTP), electronic
mail (SMTP), and the World Wide Web (HTTP). Some
applications have their own security requirements, dictated by
the structure of the application or its protocols.
4.5 The remainder of this guide is organized as follows:
Section 5 discusses security threats and the countermeasures
which can be used to protect against these threats. Section 6
presents a brief overview of cryptography, as most network
security mechanisms rely on its use. Section 7 distinguishes
E2086–00
2
between network and application security and discusses when
each level of security might be useful. The remaining sections
recommend specific security protocols and mechanisms for
both network and application security needs.
5. Threats and Countermeasures
5.1 This section covers the principal threats to a system. In
some cases, security services can prevent an attack; in other
cases, they merely detect an attack.
5.1.1 Masquerade occurs when an entity successfully pre-
tends to be another entity. This includes impersonation of users
or system components, as well as falsely claiming origination
or acknowledging receipt of a message or transaction.
5.1.2 Modification of information can include modification
of message or data content, as well as destruction of messages,
data, or management information. This includes message
sequencing threats, which occur when the order of messages is
altered.
5.1.3 Unauthorized disclosure threats include revealing
message contents or other data, as well as information derived
from observing traffic flow, as well as revealing information
held in storage on an open system.
5.1.4 Repudiation occurs when a user or the system denies
having performed some action, such as origination or reception
of a message.
5.1.5 Denial of service threats prevent the system from
performing its functions. This may be accomplished by attacks
on the underlying communications infrastructure, attacks on
the underlying applications, or by flooding the system with
extra traffic.
5.2 The following services protect against the threats de-
scribed in 5.1.1-5.1.5.
5.2.1 Peer entity authentication provides proof of the iden-
tity of communicating parties. Various types of authentication
exchanges have been discussed in the literature; most are based
on digital signatures or other cryptographic mechanisms.
5.2.2 Data origin authentication counters the threat of
masquerade and is provided using digital signatures or other
cryptographic integrity mechanisms.
5.2.3 Access control counters the threat of unauthorized
disclosure or modification of data. This is particularly appro-
priate on an end system. A variety of access control strategies
can be found in the standards, including access control lists and
security labels. Since access control is typically provided on an
end system, it is not discussed further in this guide.
5.2.4 Confidentiality counters the threat of unauthorized
disclosure, particularly during the transfer of information.
Confidentiality can be applied to entire messages or other data
units or to selected fields. Encryption is used to provide this
service.
5.2.5 Integrity counters the threat of unauthorized modifi-
cation of data. This can be provided with various types of
integrity check values. To protect against deliberate modifica-
tion, a cryptographic check value or digital signature should be
used. This also provides the service of data origin authentica-
tion. As with confidentiality, this service may be applied to
entire messages or selected fields. One particularly useful
application of selective field integrity is message sequence
integrity, in which the integrity service is applied to a sequence
number or other sequencing information.
5.2.6 Non–repudiation of origin and delivery protect against
an originator or recipient falsely denying originating or receiv-
ing a message. This service provides proof (to a third party) of
origin or receipt, and is provided using digital signatures.
6. Cryptography Overview
6.1 Cryptography is the art or science of keeping data secure
from disclosure, modification, and forgery. It is particularly
appropriate in today’s computing environment, given the
increasing use of networks to connect systems (implying more,
possibly unknown users may access data), the increasing
amount of sensitive data being conveyed on these networks,
legal requirements for protection of data, and the ease and low
cost of network attack.
6.2 Encryption can be used to provide confidentiality and
integrity services. Following are two types of encryption
systems:
6.2.1 In symmetric (conventional) cryptography, the sender
and recipient share a secret key. This key is used by the
originator to encrypt a message and by the recipient to decrypt
a message. The Data Encryption Standard (DES) is an example
of a symmetric cryptosystem. Confidentiality is provided by
encrypting the message under a shared key. Integrity and
authentication are supported by computing a cryptographic
checkvalue, or authenticator, over the message, using a key
shared by the originator and recipient.
6.2.2 In asymmetric (public key) cryptography, different
keys are used to encrypt and decrypt a message. Each user is
associated with a pair of keys. One key (the public key)is
publicly known and is used to encrypt messages destined for
that user. The private key is known only to the user and is used
to decrypt incoming messages. RSA (named after the inven-
tors’ initials) is the most well-known asymmetric algorithm.
6.3 Some asymmetric algorithms, such as RSA, can also
provide authentication, integrity, and non-repudiation when
used as follows:
6.3.1 To sign a data unit, the user encrypts it under his
private key.
6.3.2 To verify the data unit, the recipient decrypts it with
the originator’s public key.
6.3.3 If the message is successfully decrypted, it must have
been encrypted by the originator, who is the only entity that
knows the corresponding private key.
6.3.4 A digital signature is, then, a piece of data appended
to a message, generated from the message and the signer’s
private key, which allows the recipient to prove the origin of
the message and to protect against modification and forgery.
6.4 Note the digital signature can be used to provide
non–repudiation services. Unlike the authenticator discussed in
6.2, the private key used to sign a message is known only by
the signer. This prevents the signer from claiming that another
party (for example, the recipient) generated a given digital
signature.
7. Network and Application Security
7.1 Network Security:
E2086–00
3
摘要：

ASTM E2086 - 00 是用于测定铁素体钢材料在动态加载条件下无延性转变温度（NDTT）的标准化测试方法。该标准通过落锤试验评估钢材在低温环境下的抗断裂性能，特别适用于船舶、桥梁及压力容器等对低温韧性要求严格的结构钢。其核心价值在于为工程选材和质量控制提供可靠数据，帮助避免脆性断裂事故。该文档详细规定了试件制备、试验步骤及结果判定准则，是材料科学及机械工程领域工程师进行安全评估的关键参考。

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